ESSAY: “Marshmallow Girls”: Challenging Japan’s Body Image Status Quo?
(Author's Note: Please enjoy my final paper for my Fall 2014 art history course in Contemporary Japanese Visual Culture!)
Introduction
There
is no doubt that mass media has affected women’s body image around the world.
As women, we are inundated with images that depict a certain standard for
women’s bodies, regardless of where we live. Fashion magazines [figure 1],
billboard advertisements, television commercials: the messages flood women’s
brains, reinforcing that in order to be happy, to be loved, to be desirable, a
woman should be thin—or at least, a woman should not be fat.
Fashion advertising follows this trend in many
developed nations, including the United States, the United Kingdom, and Japan. Consumption
of images of the average fashion model, who weighs currently 23 percent less
than the average woman (while twenty years ago an average model weighed 8
percent less)[1],
has been found to be linked to increased body dissatisfaction among women. That,
in turn, can lead to extreme dieting or the development of eating disorders. Additionally,
women’s self-esteem is under attack not only from extremely thin models, but
also from digital manipulation of women’s bodies in fashion magazines.
While most fashion and body image statistics focus on
the Western world, Japan is not exempt from body image challenges. Japanese
women are presumed to be, and expected to be, petite and slim, with little room
for deviance. Indeed, the obesity rate in Japan is 3.5 percent, compared with
34.9 percent of Americans and 34 percent in the United Kingdom.[2]
Recently, however, the cultural ideal of the slim,
petite, pre-pubescent-looking Japanese woman has been challenged by a new
plus-size phenomenon known as “Marshmallow Girls”[3]
[figure 2]. This cutesy name not only seeks to reduce the negative stigma of a
plus-sized body in fashion in Japanese culture, but also perhaps seeks to
restore a sense of kawaii to women whose bodies are generally considered too
large for this ideal of cuteness, innocence, and youth.
In this paper, I intend to examine this “Marshmallow
Girls” phenomenon within the greater cultural context of fashion and body image
in Japan. Are “Marshmallow Girls” having an effect on Japanese women’s body
image, or is it just a passing fad? Does the term “Marshmallow Girls” succeed
at bringing a sense of kawaii to more
“womanly” bodies, or is it insulting? Or does the Marshmallow Girl create yet
another category on which women’s bodies are judged by Japanese society? And
can this “Marshmallow Girls” movement, likely designed to market clothes to
plus-size women, truly have an effect for good? It is my view that while the
effect of the “Marshmallow Girls” movement may overall be a net positive for
body image in Japan, the capitalist nature of its birth and of its present
popularity may mean that once monetary demand for chubbier bodies fades, so too
may the movement.
Eating Disorders and Health in Japan
Eating
disorders among women in developed nations are on the rise. Women are most
susceptible to developing eating disorders during their adolescent years; this
trend holds true in Japan as well as the Western World. Since World War II,
eating disorders have long been on the rise in Japanese women, even as the
average weight for Japanese men and women is increasing.[4]
In Japan, several factors have come together in
mandating a cultural sense of thinness, in comparison with the United States. For
example, in Tokyo, the government has mandated a maximum waist size in 2008 for
those over 40: 33.5 for men and 35.4 for women; those who fail to meet the
requirements are required to be counseled. Additionally, the Japanese diet is
more conducive to a thin frame than a Western-style diet, consisting of
healthier foods that are lower in fat, such as brown rice, vegetables and fish;
the average portion size is smaller than in the United States.[5]
Attitudes towards body image and culturally mandated
thinness, especially among younger Japanese women, can also be understood
through a new app called “Nenshou! For Girls” that is designed to shame the
users into losing weight. According to Cara Clegg at Rocket News 24, while the original “Nenshou!” app, designed for
men, offers encouragement and support from anime women, the women’s app, “three
gorgeous guys will give you the old carrot-and-stick treatment to encourage you
on your weight loss journey. While you exercise, you can also enjoy a
burgeoning relationship with one of the cast of ikemen (hot guys) who has been
so romantically insulting you.”[6]
In their 2004 study, Kathleen Pike, M.D./Ph.D., (Professor
of Psychology in Psychiatry and Epidemiology, Columbia University) and Amy Borovoy,
Ph.D. (Associate Professor, Department of East Asian Studies, Princeton
University) have gathered much information about the statistics of eating
disorders in Japan, noting that “from 1976 to 1981, actual cases of anorexia
nervosa and bulimia nervosa in Japan increased two-fold”—and the number keeps
climbing[7].
They cite a 1999 study in which the researchers found that “42% of normal
weight women reported significant dieting efforts to lose weight, 5.9% reported
fasting to lose weight, 14.3% reported the misuse of diet pills, 10.3% reported
the misuse of laxatives, and 3.7% reported the misuse of diuretics (Nakamura et
al. 1999).”[8]
Additionally, in a 1987 study, “Nogami and colleagues
reported that 1.3% of high school students and 4% of university students
reported engaging in binge eating behavior”; in addition, “Takeuchi et al.
(1991) reported that among junior high school females 48.4% dieted to lose
weight, 41.1% paid attention to what they ate, 75.1% reported significant
weight concern, and 38.5% reported feeling fat”.[9]
In 2001, the National Nutrition Survey found that 26 percent of women in their
twenties and thirties had body mass indices barely above the diagnostic weight
for anorexia nervosa, or 18.5.[10]
Pike and Borovoy also discuss the differences they
found in the rise of eating disorders in the West versus in Japan. They purport
that while in the West, eating disorders arise due to a desire to be thinner
and more attractive, in Japan these issues arise due to a struggle with
traditional roles, physical maturation during adolescence, and a desire to
return to the “sameness” of their pre-puberty bodies.[11]
Essentially, they write, in Japan there is little middle ground for women’s
bodies to exist—they are either the bodies of a young girl, who has access to
the kawaii aesthetic, or that of a
mother, who is expected to bear children and is unable to be truly kawaii. They write that while the
development of the in-between shōjo,
or teenage girl has succeeded in media portrayals, “less is known about the
reality of how women navigate this transition from girl to adult, through an
ambiguous space (adolescence)”[12].
Thus, if one does not have the appropriate body of a young, slim girl, there
are few options for the same sort of societally accepted beauty and
attractiveness.
Furthermore, in the Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, Jung-Hwan Kim (Associate
Professor, Department of Retailing and Fashion Merchandising, University of
South Carolina, Columbia) and Sharron J. Lennon (Professor Emeritus, Department
of Fashion, University of Delaware, Newark) studied the relationship between
consumption of mass media imagery and increased eating disorder tendencies,
using 114 college-aged women, and found that more than television, fashion and
beauty magazines had the most detrimental effect on women’s views of their bodies.
According to the researchers, “the evidence suggests that continual exposure to
thin figures of fashion models in fashion or beauty magazines may make college
women unhappy with their body weights and influence their perceptions of
themselves as overweight”.[13]
In fact, according to Plus Model Magazine, most models working today are within the body
mass index range for anorexia nervosa. While plus-size models have also been
fighting for recent prominence and runway access, today’s plus-size models begin
at a size 6, while in the past they ranged from sizes 12-18.[14]
A study from 2004 by Shiela Reaves (Professor,
Department of Life Sciences Communication, University of Wisconsin-Madison),
Jacqueline Bush Hitchon (Professor, Department of Life Sciences Communication,
University of Wisconsin-Madison), Sung-Yeon Park (Associate Professor, School
of Media and Communication, Bowling Green State University), and Gi Woong Yun (Associate
Professor, School of Media and Communication, Bowling Green State University)
found that issues of women’s self-esteem and body image could be altered or
resolved when digitally altered images are presented in tandem with the
original, unaltered states. Once women accept that the images they consume have
been digitally modified to unrealistic proportions, including lengthening of
the legs by 30 percent, they are more likely to be happier in their own bodies.
“Marshmallow Girls”: Another Way?
Recently,
a new trend has arisen in Japan designed to recast plus-size women in what is
ostensibly a positive way. In 2013, a new plus-size fashion magazine, La Farfa, gained prominence and held a
plus-sized fashion show. According to the Japan
Times, La Farfa displays models
in the range of 60-120 kg, or roughly 132-264 pounds. For her part, Harumi Kon,
the editor-in-chief of La Farfa, told
the Japan Times that “We don’t
promote losing weight or gaining weight, because there are women that look
gorgeous regardless of what they weigh […] Our view is that people should not
be defined by the size of the clothes they wear.”[15]
In its inaugural issue, La Farfa
displayed plus-size Japanese model Goto Seina and called her a “Marshmallow
Girl” [figure 3].
According to RocketNews24,
the term “Marshmallow Girl” derives from the feel of a soft, fatty stomach:
“When interviewed, Mr. Saichu, a man with a self-proclaimed ‘tummy fetish’
commented that the society is deeply biased against ‘fatties’, and usually
criticize that they ‘lack self-discipline, or neglect maintaining a balanced
diet, that’s why they got fat’. But he personally thinks that a chubby girl’s
tummy has a heavenly ‘marshmallow feel’ and that the ‘fats that have
accumulated expresses her historical growth as a female’”[16].
Goto reportedly enjoys being called a “Marshmallow
Girl”, saying “Of course there will be different opinions — people who say
‘you’re a pig’ or ‘you’re a fatty’, but for me, [marshmallow girl] makes me
really happy”.[17]
According to Tsunagu Japan, Goto
weighs 85 kg, or roughly 183 pounds, and stands at 158 centimeters, or roughly
5 feet 2 inches, giving her a BMI of between 34-35, within the range for
obesity.
Capitalism founded the movement, and capitalism
marches on, and a new J-Pop girl group, called “Chubbiness” [figure 3] and
consisting of “Marshmallow Girls”, was founded in early 2014 through a
collaboration between CanCam Magazine
and Avex, an entertainment company. Over 3,000 applicants were considered for
acceptance into this group through a nationwide casting call titled “Zenkoku
Puniko Audition (nationwide chubby girl audition)[18].”
In the tradition of Japanese idol culture, these women must maintain their (in
this case) “chubby” shapes or risk being asked to leave the group. A similar
group, “la BIG 3” [sic] [figure 4], also
features “Marshmallow Girls”.
The women of Chubbiness and la BIG 3 are presented in
similar ways. They are often dressed in brightly colored clothing that shows
off their arms, with cheery expressions on their faces. As can be expected,
much of the attention surrounding these idol groups has to do with their
larger-than-average body sizes; an interview with RocketNews24 asked each girl to name her favorite “chubby” part of
her body; answers included thighs, cheeks, and breasts[19].
The emphasis is on establishing the idea of chubbiness as something cute and
desirable, rather than a problem to be solved or eliminated.
The girls of Chubbiness and la BIG 3 are often
associated with food; Chubbiness’s music video titledマンマデイーヤ！, features them eating various foods, and la BIG 3’s
video, “Pochative ~ Body mo Heart mo Glamorous”, begins with them eating ice
cream. Additionally, an introductory interview with the girls of Chubbiness by Nikkan Spa featured questions about food
and eating[20]. “Pochative”
takes its name from a portmanteau of pocchari
(“plump”) and “positive”, thus again emphasizing a potentiality for kawaii, for a sense of cuteness, in
being larger than average-sized. The
overall sense of happiness and joy that Chubbiness and la BIG 3 emanate is
echoed in the brightly-lit videos with their catchy, bouncy melodies; they aim
to create a sense of positivity about their bodies. However, it seems as though
the way these idols are portrayed has a quite a bit to do with food, strengthening
the stereotypical link between the consumption of food, especially unhealthy
food, and a larger body size.
Reception of this idea of
“Marshmallow Girls” has been mixed. Indeed,
Kon says of responses to La Farfa:
“‘Initially there was feedback from readers saying our models weren’t pretty,
and that dressing them up doesn’t change the fact they are overweight.’ But she
adds that responses from the readers have become more positive recently”.[21]
In general, reactions to larger-sized
women additionally include scorn, largely coming from men on the internet[22].
In an April 2014 survey conducted by the
website Match Alarm, 77 percent of
men stated that they would prefer a slimmer girl, commenting that slimmer women
seemed “cleaner”, more “organized”, and that they would be “proud” to date
them, whereas they viewed larger women as “slovenly” or “unhealthy”. Conversely,
men who preferred larger women said “‘they seem kind of motherly’” and “‘it
feels good when you hug them. They’re feminine’”[23].
Taking into account the earlier opinion from Mr. Saichu, another aspect to the
burgeoning popularity of this movement comes from a place of male desire for
rounder bodies. Thus, while Marshmallow Girls seem to be responding to the
perceived lack of appreciation in mainstream publications and media for larger
body sizes, they also come from a place of male desire for care and for the
sensual feel of these bodies.
While La Farfa was
originally intended to be released twice a year, its burgeoning popularity
means that it is now a bi-monthly, having sold over 80,000 copies of its first
issue. It would seem as though this trend is gaining traction in Japan—that La Farfa and its army of plus-size
Marshmallow Girls, as well as Chubbiness and la BIG 3, are taking Japan by
storm.
Conclusion
On the one hand, a movement extolling the virtues of
much-disdained bodies cannot be anything but positive. But is the name
“Marshmallow Girls” truly empowering, or merely infantilizing and cutesy-fying?
The term “Marshmallow Girl” seems to be a way to allow larger Japanese women
access to the concept of kawaii, or a
type of cuteness, in their mode of dress as their slimmer counterparts. But is kawaii something to which all Japanese
women should aspire, or should the developing conversation around plus-size
women pave a new way in talking about women’s bodies and appearance, rather
than finding ways to fit women into previously created boxes? Additionally,
taking Pike and Borovoy’s commentary on Japanese women’s body anxiety stemming
from discomfort with their developing adult bodies, what bearing has “Mr.
Saichu’s” assessment that larger women have more “historical growth as a
female?” Indeed, the “Marshmallow Girls” movement seems doomed to be a trend
that is fetishized by one group of men, and maligned by another.
The rapid creation of idol groups such as Chubbiness
and la BIG 3 in response to this trend also brings up important questions. Is
it positive that this “Marshmallow Girls” movement was started by a fashion
magazine, ostensibly to sell clothing? Is it positive that a movement
purportedly designed to give plus-size women more body confidence has been
further monetized to sell music? Do the capitalist aspects of the “Marshmallow
Girls” movement decrease its power and/or impact?
Additionally, although the women of Chubbiness are
larger than the average Japanese woman, they fall within the norm for a Western
body shape. For example, the girls of Chubbiness range from body mass indices
of 22.6 to 25, well within the normal range for their heights.[24]
Yet their compatriots in la BIG 3 purportedly weigh in, all together, at more
than 440 pounds, a fact their management agency reveals with pride.[25]
Thus, are “Marshmallow” Girls truly subverting and challenging norms of body
image in Japan? Are they considered to be chubby in Japan? Or are they merely
demonstrating an acceptable form of deviance from the standard body type?
Is the term “Marshmallow Girls” responding to Japanese
demand for a wider variety of appreciated and acceptable bodies, or merely
creating a false sense of empowerment in order to spur consumerism? It is my
assertion that while the term “Marshmallow Girl” is overall a net positive for
Japanese women if it does help them accept their bodies, its ties to capitalism
may doom it to die once interest in this market of consumer dies. Truly,
because the movement is so recent, only time will tell about the success of the
“Marshmallow Girl” and her various iterations in Japan.
Images
Figure 1. A group of models in CanCam Magazine, a
popular Japanese fashion magazine. (http://www.officiallyjd.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/20130605_cancam_21.png)
Figure 2. Marshmallow Girls
in La Farfa Magazine. (http://tsunagu.s3-website-ap-southeast-1.amazonaws.com/image/1992/tng_image/image_139667586542_article.jpg)
Figure 3. Goto Seina in La Farfa.
Figure 4. “Chubbiness”.
Figure 5. “la BIG 3.”
Works Cited
· Pike, Katherine and Borovoy, Amy. “The Rise of
Eating Disorders in Japan: Issues of Culture and Limitations of the Model of
‘Westernization.’” Culture, Medicine, and
Psychiatry. 2004 Dec; 28 (4): 493-531. Accessed October 23, 2014.
· Kim, Jung-Hwan and Lennon, Sharon J. “Mass
Media and Self-Esteem, Body Image, and Eating Disorder Tendencies.” Clothing and Textiles Research Journal,
2007 25: 3. Accessed October 23, 2014. DOI: 10.1177/0887302X06296873.
· Moeran, Brian. “The Portrayal of Beauty in
Women’s Fashion Magazines.” Fashion
Theory: The Journal of Dress, Body & Culture. Volume 14, Number 4,
December 2010, pp. 491-510 (20). Accessed October 23, 2014.
· Reaves, Shiela, Hitchon, Jacqueline Bush, Park,
Sung-Yeon, and Yun, Gi Woong. “‘You Can Never Be Too Thin" –or Can You?’:
A Pilot Study on The Effects of Digital Manipulation of Fashion Models’ Body
Size, Leg Length and Skin Color.” Race,
Gender & Class, Vol. 11, No. 2, Race, Gender, and Class in Media. [2]
(2004), pp. 140-155. Accessed October 23, 2014.
· Ghosh, Palash. “Japan Has
Many Problems, But Obesity Isn’t One Of Them.” International Business Times, January 25, 2013. Accessed November
1, 2014. http://www.ibtimes.com/japan-has-many-problems-obesity-isnt-one-them-1038090
· Hongo, Jun. “Treading a
healthy path — whichever road you take.” Japan
Times, December 5, 2013. Accessed November 1, 2014. http://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2013/12/05/lifestyle/treading-a-healthy-path-whichever-road-you-take/
· Lovett, Edward. “Most Models
Meet Criteria for Anorexia, Size 6 Is Plus Size: Magazine.” ABC News, January 12, 2012. Accessed
November 1, 2014.
http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2012/01/most-models-meet-criteria-for-anorexia-size-6-is-plus-size-magazine/
· Gray, Emma. “'Hey, Fattie'
App Uses Hot Anime Men To Shame Women Into Losing Weight.” Huffington Post, August 2, 2013. Accessed November 1, 2014. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/08/02/hey-fattie-app-weight-loss-women_n_3695874.html
· Dries, Kate. “Japan's
Plus-Sized Girl Band Chubbiness Is Not Actually Chubby.” Jezebel.com, February 4, 2014. Accessed November 1, 2014. http://jezebel.com/japans-plus-sized-girl-band-chubbiness-is-not-actually-1515679881
· “Call Larger Women
“Marshmallow Girls”, Says Magazine.” Japancrush.com,
December 13, 2013. Accessed November 1, 2014. http://www.japancrush.com/2013/stories/call-larger-women-marshmallow-girls-says-magazine.html
· Hongo, Jun. “Plump Singing
Groups Throw Music World Some Curves.” Wall
Street Journal, October 1, 2014. Accessed November 9, 2014. http://blogs.wsj.com/japanrealtime/2014/10/01/plump-singing-groups-throw-music-world-some-curves/
· Coello, Joan. “Don’t call
them fat, call them Marshmallow Girls!” Rocketnews24.com,
December 19, 2013. Accessed November 1, 2014. http://en.rocketnews24.com/2013/12/19/dont-call-them-fat-call-them-marshmallow-girls/
· “Don’t call us fat! We are
marshmallow girls!!” Tsunagujapan.com,
July 20, 2014. Accessed November 1, 2014. http://www.tsunagujapan.com/dont-call-us-fat-we-are-marshmallow-girls/
· Clegg, Cara. “More
marshmallow girls, but will we be calling them marshmallows for much longer?!” Rocketnews24.com, February 15, 2014. Accessed November 1, 2014. http://en.rocketnews24.com/2014/02/25/more-marshmallow-girls-but-will-we-be-calling-them-marshmallows-for-much-longer/
· “Japanese girls are not just
skinny any more!? Chubby girls are in!” Rocketnews24.com,
June 25, 2014. Accessed November 1, 2014. http://en.rocketnews24.com/2014/06/25/japanese-girls-are-not-just-skinny-any-more-chubby-girls-are-in/
· Coello, Joan. “Meet
Chubbiness, Japan’s latest chubby girl idol group.” Japantoday.com, January 29, 2014. Accessed November 1, 2014. http://www.japantoday.com/category/arts-culture/view/meet-chubbiness-japans-latest-chubby-girl-idol-group
· Joan Coello, “Marshmallow
girls unite! Meet Chubbiness, Japan’s latest ‘chubby’ girl idol group,” Rocketnews24.com, January 28, 2014,
accessed November 1, 2014. http://en.rocketnews24.com/2014/01/28/marshmallow-girls-unite-meet-chubbiness-japans-latest-chubby-girl-idol-group/
· Wrigley, Fran. “Plus-size
idol group “la BIG 3” made a music video, and they do a lot of eating in it.” Rocketnews24.com, September 30, 2014. Accessed
November 1, 2014. http://en.rocketnews24.com/2014/09/30/plus-size-idol-group-la-big-3-made-a-music-video-and-they-do-a-lot-of-eating-in-it%E3%80%90video%E3%80%91/
· “Men Want Slim Girls, Not Fat
‘Marshmallow Girls’ Says Survey.” Japancrush.com,
April 24, 2014. Accessed November 1, 2014. http://www.japancrush.com/2014/stories/men-want-slim-girls-not-fat-marshmallow-girls-says-survey.html
[1] Edward
Lovett, “Most Models Meet Criteria for Anorexia, Size 6 Is Plus Size:
Magazine,” ABC News, January 12,
2012, accessed November 1, 2014,
http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2012/01/most-models-meet-criteria-for-anorexia-size-6-is-plus-size-magazine/
[2] Palash
Ghosh, “Japan Has Many Problems, But Obesity Isn’t One Of Them,” International Business Times, January
25, 2013, accessed November 1, 2014,
http://www.ibtimes.com/japan-has-many-problems-obesity-isnt-one-them-1038090
[3] Joan
Coello, “Don’t call them fat, call them Marshmallow Girls!” Rocketnews24.com, December 19, 2013,
accessed November 1, 2014,
http://en.rocketnews24.com/2013/12/19/dont-call-them-fat-call-them-marshmallow-girls/
[4] Katherine Pike and Amy
Borovoy, “The Rise of Eating Disorders in Japan: Issues of Culture and
Limitations of the Model of ‘Westernization,’” Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry, 2004 Dec; 28 (4): 493-531,
accessed October 23, 2014, p. 497
[5] Palash
Ghosh, “Japan Has Many Problems, But Obesity Isn’t One Of Them” International Business Times, January
25, 2013, accessed November 1, 2014,
http://www.ibtimes.com/japan-has-many-problems-obesity-isnt-one-them-1038090
[6] Emma Gray,
“'Hey, Fattie' App Uses Hot Anime Men To Shame Women Into Losing Weight,” Huffington Post, August 2, 2013,
accessed November 1, 2014,
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/08/02/hey-fattie-app-weight-loss-women_n_3695874.html
[7] Katherine Pike and Amy
Borovoy, “The Rise of Eating Disorders in Japan: Issues of Culture and
Limitations of the Model of ‘Westernization,’” Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry, 2004 Dec; 28 (4): 493-531,
accessed October 23, 2014, p. 497
[8] Katherine Pike and Amy
Borovoy, “The Rise of Eating Disorders in Japan: Issues of Culture and
Limitations of the Model of ‘Westernization,’” Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry, 2004 Dec; 28 (4): 493-531,
accessed October 23, 2014, p. 498
[9] Katherine Pike and Amy
Borovoy, “The Rise of Eating Disorders in Japan: Issues of Culture and
Limitations of the Model of ‘Westernization,’” Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry, 2004 Dec; 28 (4): 493-531,
accessed October 23, 2014, p. 497
[10] Katherine Pike and Amy
Borovoy, “The Rise of Eating Disorders in Japan: Issues of Culture and
Limitations of the Model of ‘Westernization,’” Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry, 2004 Dec; 28 (4): 493-531,
accessed October 23, 2014, p. 497
[11] Katherine Pike and Amy
Borovoy, “The Rise of Eating Disorders in Japan: Issues of Culture and
Limitations of the Model of ‘Westernization,’” Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry, 2004 Dec; 28 (4): 493-531,
accessed October 23, 2014, p. 518
[12] Katherine Pike and Amy
Borovoy, “The Rise of Eating Disorders in Japan: Issues of Culture and
Limitations of the Model of ‘Westernization,’” Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry, 2004 Dec; 28 (4): 493-531,
accessed October 23, 2014, p. 503
[13] Jung-Hwan Kim and Sharon J.
Lennon, “Mass Media and Self-Esteem, Body Image, and Eating Disorder
Tendencies,” Clothing and Textiles
Research Journal, 2007 25: 3. Accessed October 23, 2014. DOI:
10.1177/0887302X06296873, p. 17
[14] Edward
Lovett, “Most Models Meet Criteria for Anorexia, Size 6 Is Plus Size:
Magazine,” ABC News, January 12,
2012, accessed November 1, 2014,
http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2012/01/most-models-meet-criteria-for-anorexia-size-6-is-plus-size-magazine/
[15] Jun Hongo,
“Treading a healthy path — whichever road you take,” Japan Times, December 5, 2013, accessed November 1, 2014,
http://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2013/12/05/lifestyle/treading-a-healthy-path-whichever-road-you-take/
[16] Joan
Coello, “Don’t call them fat, call them Marshmallow Girls!” Rocketnews24.com, December 19, 2013,
accessed November 1, 2014, http://en.rocketnews24.com/2013/12/19/dont-call-them-fat-call-them-marshmallow-girls/
[17] “Call
Larger Women “Marshmallow Girls”, Says Magazine,” Japancrush.com, December 13, 2013, accessed November 1, 2014,
http://www.japancrush.com/2013/stories/call-larger-women-marshmallow-girls-says-magazine.html
[18] Joan Coello,
“Marshmallow girls unite! Meet Chubbiness, Japan’s latest ‘chubby’ girl idol
group,” Rocketnews24.com, January 28,
2014, accessed November 1, 2014,
http://en.rocketnews24.com/2014/01/28/marshmallow-girls-unite-meet-chubbiness-japans-latest-chubby-girl-idol-group/
[19] Joan Coello,
“Marshmallow girls unite! Meet Chubbiness, Japan’s latest ‘chubby’ girl idol
group,” Rocketnews24.com, January 28,
2014, accessed November 1, 2014,
http://en.rocketnews24.com/2014/01/28/marshmallow-girls-unite-meet-chubbiness-japans-latest-chubby-girl-idol-group/
[20] Joan
Coello, “Meet Chubbiness, Japan’s latest chubby girl idol group,” Japantoday.com, January 29, 2014, accessed
November 1, 2014, http://www.japantoday.com/category/arts-culture/view/meet-chubbiness-japans-latest-chubby-girl-idol-group
[21] Jun Hongo,
“Treading a healthy path — whichever road you take,” Japan Times, December 5, 2013, accessed November 1, 2014,
http://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2013/12/05/lifestyle/treading-a-healthy-path-whichever-road-you-take/
[22] “Call
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